Evolution of Durability and Mechanical Behaviour of Mud Mortar Stabilized with Oil Shale Ash, Lime, and Cement
Vol. 9 No. 9 (2023): September
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Doi: 10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-09-06
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Edris, W. F., Al-Fhaid, H., & Al-Tamimi, M. (2023). Evolution of Durability and Mechanical Behaviour of Mud Mortar Stabilized with Oil Shale Ash, Lime, and Cement. Civil Engineering Journal, 9(9), 2175–2192. https://doi.org/10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-09-06
[1] Fabbri, A., Morel, J. C., Aubert, J. E., Bui, Q. B., Gallipoli, D., & Reddy, B. V. (2022). Testing and characterisation of earth-based building materials and elements. Springer, Cham, Switzerland. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83297-1.
[1] Minke, G. (2006). Building with earth: design and technology of a sustainable architecture. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany.
[2] Pierrehumbert, R. (2019). There is no Plan B for dealing with the climate crisis. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 75(5), 215–221. doi:10.1080/00963402.2019.1654255.
[3] Oliver, A. (2008). Modified earthen materials: An Overview of Research in Earthen Architecture Conservation Terra Literature Review, 97.
[4] Guillaud, H. (2017). Markers of earthen construction modern revival. Proceedings of the Vernacular and Earthen Architecture: Conservation and Sustainability Proceedings of SosTierra, 14-16 September, 2017, Valencia, Spain.
[5] Behnood, A. (2018). Soil and clay stabilization with calcium- and non-calcium-based additives: A state-of-the-art review of challenges, approaches and techniques. Transportation Geotechnics, 17, 14–32. doi:10.1016/j.trgeo.2018.08.002.
[6] Perrot, A., Rangeard, D., Menasria, F., & Guihéneuf, S. (2018). Strategies for optimizing the mechanical strengths of raw earth-based mortars. Construction and Building Materials, 167, 496–504. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.055.
[7] Stathopoulos, K., Apostolopoulou, M., & Bakolas, A. (2021). Enhancement of water resistance of earthen mortars through stabilization. Construction and Building Materials, 289, 123180. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123180.
[8] Gomes, M. I., Faria, P., & Gonçalves, T. D. (2018). Earth-based mortars for repair and protection of rammed earth walls. Stabilization with mineral binders and fibers. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 2401–2414. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.170.
[9] Sobczyńska, E., Terlikowski, W., & Gregoriou-Szczepaniak, M. (2021). Stability of treatment from earth-based mortar in conservation of stone structures in Tanais, Russia. Sustainability (Switzerland), 13(4), 1–20. doi:10.3390/su13042220.
[10] Benidir, A., & Brara, A. (2021). Experimental assessment of mechanical behavior of a compressed stabilized earth blocks (CSEB) and walls. Journal of Materials and Engineering Structures, 8(1), 95-110.
[11] Edris, W. F., Jaradat, Y., Al Azzam, A. O., Al Naji, H. M., & Abuzmero, S. A. (2020). Effect of volcanic tuff on the engineering properties of compressed earth block. Archives of Materials Science and Engineering, 106(1), 5–16. doi:10.5604/01.3001.0014.5928.
[12] Edris, W., Matalkah, F., Rbabah, B., Sbaih, A. A., & Hailat, R. (2021). Characteristics of Hollow Compressed Earth Block Stabilized Using Cement, Lime, and Sodium Silicate. Civil and Environmental Engineering, 17(1), 200–208. doi:10.2478/cee-2021-0021.
[13] Lekshmi, M. S., Vishnudas, S., & Nair, D. G. (2016). Experimental Study on the Physical Properties of Mud Mortar in Comparison with the Conventional Mortars. Civil Engineering and Urban Planning: An International Journal (CiVEJ), 3(2), 127–135. doi:10.5121/civej.2016.3211.
[14] Rashmi, S., Jagadish, K. S., & Nethravathi, S. (2014). Stabilized Mud Mortar. International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, 03(18), 26–29. doi:10.15623/ijret.2014.0318005.
[15] Walker, P. J. (2004). Strength and Erosion Characteristics of Earth Blocks and Earth Block Masonry. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 16(5), 497–506. doi:10.1061/(asce)0899-1561(2004)16:5(497).
[16] Paiva, R. de L. M., Martins, A. P. S., Caldas, L. R., Reales, O. A. M., & Toledo Filho, R. D. (2022). Earth-Based Mortars: Mix Design, Mechanical Characterization and Environmental Performance Assessment. Bio-Based Building Materials. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/cta.1.271.
[17] Al-Fhaid, H., Edris, W. F., & Al-Tamimi, M. (2023). Potential utilization of oil shale as a stabilizing material for compressed Earth block. Frontiers in Built Environment, 9. doi:10.3389/fbuil.2023.1199744.
[18] Vimala, S., & Kumarasamy, K. (2014). Studies on the strength of stabilized mud block masonry using different mortar proportions. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, 4(4), 720-724.
[19] Karozou, A., Pavlidou, E., & Stefanidou, M. (2019). Enhancing Properties of Clay Mortars Using Nano-Additives. Solid State Phenomena, 286, 145–155. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.286.145.
[20] Araya-Letelier, G., Concha-Riedel, J., Antico, F. C., & Sandoval, C. (2019). Experimental mechanical-damage assessment of earthen mixes reinforced with micro polypropylene fibers. Construction and Building Materials, 198, 762–776. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.261.
[21] Sajanthan, K., Balagasan, B., & Sathiparan, N. (2019). Prediction of Compressive Strength of Stabilized Earth Block Masonry. Advances in Civil Engineering, 2019, 1–13. doi:10.1155/2019/2072430.
[22] Yihdego, Y., Salem, H. S., Kafui, B. G., & Veljkovic, Z. (2018). Economic geology value of oil shale deposits: Ethiopia (Tigray) and Jordan. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects, 40(17), 2079–2096. doi:10.1080/15567036.2018.1488015.
[23] Paaver, P., Paiste, P., Liira, M., & Kirsimäe, K. (2019). Alkali activation of Estonian CA-rich oil shale ashes: A synthesis. Oil Shale, 36(2S), 214–225. doi:10.3176/oil.2019.2S.11.
[24] Alali, J., Abu Salah, A., Yasin, S., & Al Omari, W. (2015). Mineral Status and Future Opportunity: OIL SHALE. Technical Report, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Amman, Jordan.
[25] Bsieso, M. S. (2003). Jordan'S Experience in Oil Shale Studies Employing Different Technologies. Oil Shale, 20(3S), 360. doi:10.3176/oil.2003.3s.09.
[26] Kuusik, R., Uibu, M., Kirsimäe, K., Míµtlep, R., & Meriste, T. (2012). Open-Air Deposition of Estonian Oil Shale Ash: Formation, State of Art, Problems and Prospects for the Abatement of Environmental Impact. Oil Shale, 29(4), 376. doi:10.3176/oil.2012.4.08.
[27] Pihu, T., Arro, H., Prikk, A., Rootamm, R., Konist, A., Kirsimäe, K., Liira, M., & Míµtlep, R. (2012). Oil shale CFBC ash cementation properties in ash fields. Fuel, 93, 172–180. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2011.08.050.
[28] ASTM D4318-17e1. (2005). Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils. ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/D4318-17E01.
[29] ASTM D3282-15. (2016). Standard Practice for Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes. ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/D3282-15.
[30] ASTM D422-63(2007). (2014). Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils. ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/D0422-63R07.
[31] El-Hasan, T., Abu-Jaber, N., & Abdelhadi, N. (2019). Hazardous toxic elements mobility in burned oil shale ash, and attempts to attain short-and long-term solidification. Oil Shale, 36(2S), 226–249. doi:10.3176/oil.2019.2S.12.
[32] ASTM C33/C33M-18. (2023). Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates. ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/C0033_C0033M-18.
[33] Feng, X., Niu, X., Bai, X., Liu, X., & Sun, H. (2007). Cementing Properties of Oil Shale Ash. Journal of China University of Mining and Technology, 17(4), 498–502. doi:10.1016/s1006-1266(07)60133-3.
[34] ASTM C109/C109M-20. (2020). Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50-mm] Cube Specimens). ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/C0109_C0109-20..
[35] IS: 1199-1959. (1959). Specification for method of test for water absorption concrete. Bureau of Indian Standards., New Delhi, India.
[36] PN 85/B-04500. (1985). Building Mortars”Testing of Physical and Mechanical Properties. Polish Committee for Standardization, Warsaw, Poland.
[37] Izemmouren, O., Guettala, A., & Guettala, S. (2015). Mechanical Properties and Durability of Lime and Natural Pozzolana Stabilized Steam-Cured Compressed Earth Block Bricks. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 33(5), 1321–1333. doi:10.1007/s10706-015-9904-6.
[38] Reddy, B. V. V., & Gourav, K. (2011). Strength of lime-fly ash compacts using different curing techniques and gypsum additive. Materials and Structures/Materiaux et Constructions, 44(10), 1793–1808. doi:10.1617/s11527-011-9738-5.
[39] Chan, S. Y. N., & Ji, X. (1998). Water sorptivity and chloride diffusivity of oil shale ash concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 12(4), 177–183. doi:10.1016/S0950-0618(98)00006-3.
[40] Nematov, D. D., Kholmurodov, K. T., Husenzoda, M. A., Lyubchyk, A., & Burhonzoda, A. S. (2022). Molecular Adsorption of H2O on TiO2 and TiO2: Y Surfaces. Journal of Human, Earth, and Future, 3(2), 213-222. doi:10.28991/HEF-2022-03-02-07.
[41] Wiehle, P., & Brinkmann, M. (2022). Material behaviour of unstabilised earth block masonry and its components under compression at varying relative humidity. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 17, 1663. doi:10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01663.
[42] Ruiz, G., Zhang, X., Edris, W. F., Cañas, I., & Garijo, L. (2018). A comprehensive study of mechanical properties of compressed earth blocks. Construction and Building Materials, 176, 566–572. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.077.
[43] Wu, F., Li, G., Li, H. N., & Jia, J. Q. (2013). Strength and stress-strain characteristics of traditional adobe block and masonry. Materials and Structures/Materiaux et Constructions, 46(9), 1449–1457. doi:10.1617/s11527-012-9987-y.
[44] DIN-18946. (2018). Earth Masonry Mortar”Requirements, Test and Labelling. Deutsches Institut Fur Normung, Berlin, Germany.
[45] Andrade, F. A., Al-Qureshi, H. A., & Hotza, D. (2011). Measuring the plasticity of clays: A review. Applied Clay Science, 51(1–2), 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2010.10.028.
[46] Tardy, Y., & Soler, J. M. (1993). Petrology of laterites and tropical soils. Masson, Paris, France. (In French).
[47] Sabbí , M. F., Tesoro, M., Falcicchio, C., & Foti, D. (2021). Rammed earth with straw fibers and earth mortar: Mix design and mechanical characteristics determination. Fibers, 9(5), 30. doi:10.3390/fib9050030.
[1] Minke, G. (2006). Building with earth: design and technology of a sustainable architecture. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany.
[2] Pierrehumbert, R. (2019). There is no Plan B for dealing with the climate crisis. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 75(5), 215–221. doi:10.1080/00963402.2019.1654255.
[3] Oliver, A. (2008). Modified earthen materials: An Overview of Research in Earthen Architecture Conservation Terra Literature Review, 97.
[4] Guillaud, H. (2017). Markers of earthen construction modern revival. Proceedings of the Vernacular and Earthen Architecture: Conservation and Sustainability Proceedings of SosTierra, 14-16 September, 2017, Valencia, Spain.
[5] Behnood, A. (2018). Soil and clay stabilization with calcium- and non-calcium-based additives: A state-of-the-art review of challenges, approaches and techniques. Transportation Geotechnics, 17, 14–32. doi:10.1016/j.trgeo.2018.08.002.
[6] Perrot, A., Rangeard, D., Menasria, F., & Guihéneuf, S. (2018). Strategies for optimizing the mechanical strengths of raw earth-based mortars. Construction and Building Materials, 167, 496–504. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.055.
[7] Stathopoulos, K., Apostolopoulou, M., & Bakolas, A. (2021). Enhancement of water resistance of earthen mortars through stabilization. Construction and Building Materials, 289, 123180. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123180.
[8] Gomes, M. I., Faria, P., & Gonçalves, T. D. (2018). Earth-based mortars for repair and protection of rammed earth walls. Stabilization with mineral binders and fibers. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 2401–2414. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.170.
[9] Sobczyńska, E., Terlikowski, W., & Gregoriou-Szczepaniak, M. (2021). Stability of treatment from earth-based mortar in conservation of stone structures in Tanais, Russia. Sustainability (Switzerland), 13(4), 1–20. doi:10.3390/su13042220.
[10] Benidir, A., & Brara, A. (2021). Experimental assessment of mechanical behavior of a compressed stabilized earth blocks (CSEB) and walls. Journal of Materials and Engineering Structures, 8(1), 95-110.
[11] Edris, W. F., Jaradat, Y., Al Azzam, A. O., Al Naji, H. M., & Abuzmero, S. A. (2020). Effect of volcanic tuff on the engineering properties of compressed earth block. Archives of Materials Science and Engineering, 106(1), 5–16. doi:10.5604/01.3001.0014.5928.
[12] Edris, W., Matalkah, F., Rbabah, B., Sbaih, A. A., & Hailat, R. (2021). Characteristics of Hollow Compressed Earth Block Stabilized Using Cement, Lime, and Sodium Silicate. Civil and Environmental Engineering, 17(1), 200–208. doi:10.2478/cee-2021-0021.
[13] Lekshmi, M. S., Vishnudas, S., & Nair, D. G. (2016). Experimental Study on the Physical Properties of Mud Mortar in Comparison with the Conventional Mortars. Civil Engineering and Urban Planning: An International Journal (CiVEJ), 3(2), 127–135. doi:10.5121/civej.2016.3211.
[14] Rashmi, S., Jagadish, K. S., & Nethravathi, S. (2014). Stabilized Mud Mortar. International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, 03(18), 26–29. doi:10.15623/ijret.2014.0318005.
[15] Walker, P. J. (2004). Strength and Erosion Characteristics of Earth Blocks and Earth Block Masonry. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 16(5), 497–506. doi:10.1061/(asce)0899-1561(2004)16:5(497).
[16] Paiva, R. de L. M., Martins, A. P. S., Caldas, L. R., Reales, O. A. M., & Toledo Filho, R. D. (2022). Earth-Based Mortars: Mix Design, Mechanical Characterization and Environmental Performance Assessment. Bio-Based Building Materials. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/cta.1.271.
[17] Al-Fhaid, H., Edris, W. F., & Al-Tamimi, M. (2023). Potential utilization of oil shale as a stabilizing material for compressed Earth block. Frontiers in Built Environment, 9. doi:10.3389/fbuil.2023.1199744.
[18] Vimala, S., & Kumarasamy, K. (2014). Studies on the strength of stabilized mud block masonry using different mortar proportions. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, 4(4), 720-724.
[19] Karozou, A., Pavlidou, E., & Stefanidou, M. (2019). Enhancing Properties of Clay Mortars Using Nano-Additives. Solid State Phenomena, 286, 145–155. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.286.145.
[20] Araya-Letelier, G., Concha-Riedel, J., Antico, F. C., & Sandoval, C. (2019). Experimental mechanical-damage assessment of earthen mixes reinforced with micro polypropylene fibers. Construction and Building Materials, 198, 762–776. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.261.
[21] Sajanthan, K., Balagasan, B., & Sathiparan, N. (2019). Prediction of Compressive Strength of Stabilized Earth Block Masonry. Advances in Civil Engineering, 2019, 1–13. doi:10.1155/2019/2072430.
[22] Yihdego, Y., Salem, H. S., Kafui, B. G., & Veljkovic, Z. (2018). Economic geology value of oil shale deposits: Ethiopia (Tigray) and Jordan. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects, 40(17), 2079–2096. doi:10.1080/15567036.2018.1488015.
[23] Paaver, P., Paiste, P., Liira, M., & Kirsimäe, K. (2019). Alkali activation of Estonian CA-rich oil shale ashes: A synthesis. Oil Shale, 36(2S), 214–225. doi:10.3176/oil.2019.2S.11.
[24] Alali, J., Abu Salah, A., Yasin, S., & Al Omari, W. (2015). Mineral Status and Future Opportunity: OIL SHALE. Technical Report, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Amman, Jordan.
[25] Bsieso, M. S. (2003). Jordan'S Experience in Oil Shale Studies Employing Different Technologies. Oil Shale, 20(3S), 360. doi:10.3176/oil.2003.3s.09.
[26] Kuusik, R., Uibu, M., Kirsimäe, K., Míµtlep, R., & Meriste, T. (2012). Open-Air Deposition of Estonian Oil Shale Ash: Formation, State of Art, Problems and Prospects for the Abatement of Environmental Impact. Oil Shale, 29(4), 376. doi:10.3176/oil.2012.4.08.
[27] Pihu, T., Arro, H., Prikk, A., Rootamm, R., Konist, A., Kirsimäe, K., Liira, M., & Míµtlep, R. (2012). Oil shale CFBC ash cementation properties in ash fields. Fuel, 93, 172–180. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2011.08.050.
[28] ASTM D4318-17e1. (2005). Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils. ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/D4318-17E01.
[29] ASTM D3282-15. (2016). Standard Practice for Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes. ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/D3282-15.
[30] ASTM D422-63(2007). (2014). Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils. ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/D0422-63R07.
[31] El-Hasan, T., Abu-Jaber, N., & Abdelhadi, N. (2019). Hazardous toxic elements mobility in burned oil shale ash, and attempts to attain short-and long-term solidification. Oil Shale, 36(2S), 226–249. doi:10.3176/oil.2019.2S.12.
[32] ASTM C33/C33M-18. (2023). Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates. ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/C0033_C0033M-18.
[33] Feng, X., Niu, X., Bai, X., Liu, X., & Sun, H. (2007). Cementing Properties of Oil Shale Ash. Journal of China University of Mining and Technology, 17(4), 498–502. doi:10.1016/s1006-1266(07)60133-3.
[34] ASTM C109/C109M-20. (2020). Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50-mm] Cube Specimens). ASTM International, Pennsylvania, United States. doi:10.1520/C0109_C0109-20..
[35] IS: 1199-1959. (1959). Specification for method of test for water absorption concrete. Bureau of Indian Standards., New Delhi, India.
[36] PN 85/B-04500. (1985). Building Mortars”Testing of Physical and Mechanical Properties. Polish Committee for Standardization, Warsaw, Poland.
[37] Izemmouren, O., Guettala, A., & Guettala, S. (2015). Mechanical Properties and Durability of Lime and Natural Pozzolana Stabilized Steam-Cured Compressed Earth Block Bricks. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 33(5), 1321–1333. doi:10.1007/s10706-015-9904-6.
[38] Reddy, B. V. V., & Gourav, K. (2011). Strength of lime-fly ash compacts using different curing techniques and gypsum additive. Materials and Structures/Materiaux et Constructions, 44(10), 1793–1808. doi:10.1617/s11527-011-9738-5.
[39] Chan, S. Y. N., & Ji, X. (1998). Water sorptivity and chloride diffusivity of oil shale ash concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 12(4), 177–183. doi:10.1016/S0950-0618(98)00006-3.
[40] Nematov, D. D., Kholmurodov, K. T., Husenzoda, M. A., Lyubchyk, A., & Burhonzoda, A. S. (2022). Molecular Adsorption of H2O on TiO2 and TiO2: Y Surfaces. Journal of Human, Earth, and Future, 3(2), 213-222. doi:10.28991/HEF-2022-03-02-07.
[41] Wiehle, P., & Brinkmann, M. (2022). Material behaviour of unstabilised earth block masonry and its components under compression at varying relative humidity. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 17, 1663. doi:10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01663.
[42] Ruiz, G., Zhang, X., Edris, W. F., Cañas, I., & Garijo, L. (2018). A comprehensive study of mechanical properties of compressed earth blocks. Construction and Building Materials, 176, 566–572. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.077.
[43] Wu, F., Li, G., Li, H. N., & Jia, J. Q. (2013). Strength and stress-strain characteristics of traditional adobe block and masonry. Materials and Structures/Materiaux et Constructions, 46(9), 1449–1457. doi:10.1617/s11527-012-9987-y.
[44] DIN-18946. (2018). Earth Masonry Mortar”Requirements, Test and Labelling. Deutsches Institut Fur Normung, Berlin, Germany.
[45] Andrade, F. A., Al-Qureshi, H. A., & Hotza, D. (2011). Measuring the plasticity of clays: A review. Applied Clay Science, 51(1–2), 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2010.10.028.
[46] Tardy, Y., & Soler, J. M. (1993). Petrology of laterites and tropical soils. Masson, Paris, France. (In French).
[47] Sabbí , M. F., Tesoro, M., Falcicchio, C., & Foti, D. (2021). Rammed earth with straw fibers and earth mortar: Mix design and mechanical characteristics determination. Fibers, 9(5), 30. doi:10.3390/fib9050030.
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